Soal Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan

PAI 1.C

1. Bagaimana relevansi pendidikan kewarganegaraan dalam konteks kehidupan bangsa dan Negara Indonesia saat ini?
2. Berikan penjelasan tentang Globalisasi, apakah ada korelasi secara langsung antara globalisasi dengan pelemahan identitas atau jati diri bangsa Indonesia?
3. Jelaskan reformasi tahun 1998 telah membawa perubahan terhadap struktur ketatanegaraan dan sistem pemerintahan Indonesia?
4. Bagaimana pelaksanaan demokrasi di Indonesia, apa permasalahannya serta bagaimana upaya yang dapat dilakukan untuk pemecahan masalah tersebut?
5. Bagaimana cara manajemen konflik yang terjadi dalam kehidupan masyarakat, baik konflik lingkungan kota sampai pada konflik beda agama dan sesama agama?

PAI 1.H

1. Jelaskan pentingnya pendidikan HAM bagi warga Negara Indonesia, untuk mewujudkan Indonesia yang baru?
2. Bagaimana cara mencegah disintegrasi bangsa?
3. Indonesia merupakan salah satu Negara yang berdasarkan atas hukum. Bagaimana pelaksanaan hukum di Indonesia?
4. Beberapa jaminan hak asasi manusia diberikan adalah hak untuk memilih agama sesuai dengan keyainannya, selain itu diberikan hak untuk membentuk sebuah keluarga yang sah baik secara hukum maupun secara agama. Bagaimana pelaksanaan pernikahan beda agama di Indonesia?
5. Jelaskan prinsip-prinsip dan nilai-nilai demokrasi? Berikan contoh realisasi dalam kehidupan sehari-hari?

PAI 1.I

1. Mengapa konstitusi mencakup juga peraturan yang tidak tertulis? Bagaimana dengan Indonesia? serta berikan contohnya?
2. Masyarakat di Indonesia sangat menjunjung nilai-nilai demokrasi. Jelaskan hubungan antara masyarakat madani dengan demokrasi?
3. Kemajuan tekhnologi dan pengetahuan manusia semakin berkembang. Salah satunya memberikan dampak terhadap bentuk identitas nasional. Jelaskan apa saja yang dapat melunturkan identitas nasional bangsa serta bagaimana pemecahannya?
4. Salah satu fungsi dari sebuah konstitusi adalah pembatasan atas kekuasaan Pemerintah dalam suatu Negara. Jelaskan cakupan batasan tersebut?
5. Permasalahan yang sering menimbulkan keresahana bagi sebagaian besar masyarakat adalah adanya terorisme. Bagaimana solusi permasalahan terorisme di Indonesia?

Soal Pendidikan Pancasila

PBA 1B

1. Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia yang pertama adalah UUD 1945, selanjutnya ada kedudukan Pancasila sebagai dasar Negara Republik Indonesi. Selain itu, pancasila menjadi tujuan pandangan hidup bagi masyarakat bangsa Indonesia. berikan penjelasan kedudukan dan fungsi pancasila tersebut beserta contohnya?
2. Ideologi bangsa indonesia menganut ideologi terbuka. Bagaimana peranan ideologi bagi bangsa Indonesia?
3. Bagaimanan realisasi nilai-nilai pancasila dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. apa saja permasalahannya dan seperti apa penanggulannya? 
4. Pembangunan negara Indonesia selalu berlandaskan pada ideologi pancasila, baik dalam pembangunan Negara maupun bangsanya. berikan penjelasan alasan-alasan yang mendasari pancasila dijadikan sebagai ideologi bangsa?
5. Bagaimana cara sosialisasi pancasila dan pembudayaan pancasila dalam kehidupan berbangsa? 

PBA 1C

1. Salah satu jaminan hukum di Indonesia adalah HAM, yang diatur dalam UUD 1945 pada pasal 28 A sampai dengan pasal 28 J. jelaskan bagaimana pelaksanaan HAM di Indonesiaberdasar UU tersebut?
2. Jelaskan perbandingan filsafat pancasila dengan filsafat lainnya dari dunia?
3. Salah satu tujuan dalam pancasila adalah mewujudkan keadilan sosial bagi seluruh rakyat Indonesia, sehingga diperlukan upaya nyata yang harus ditunjukan baik dari Pemerintah dan masyarakat sebagai warga Negara. berikan penjelasakan uapaya apa saja yang dapat dilakukan untuk terciptanya keadilan yang merata untuk warga negara Indonesia?
4. Indonesia salah satu negara yang berlandaskan hukum, setiap individu memiliki hak dan kewajiban taat terhadap hukum yang berlaku. bagaimana pelaksanaan hukum di Indonesia?
5. Jelaskan bahwa etika merupakan salah satu cabang filsafat praktis dan dikembangkannya pancasila sebagai sistem etika?

DEFINITION INSTITUTION

A.   Definition Institution in the dictionary of Indonesian

1. Organization; institutions: has been compiled - the customs, habits, and rules (source: kbbi3).
2. Something institutionalized by law, custom or habit (such as clubs, associations, social organizations, and custom-bi berhalal pd days Lebaran); (source: kbbi3).
3. Building the site of the club or organization's activities (source: kbbi3). Sumber : http://www.kamusbesar.com/15271/institusi
4. Zucker 1977:728) : a rule-like, social fact quality of an organized pattern of action (exterior) and an embedding in formal structures, such as formal aspects of organizations that are not tied to particular actors or situations (nonpersonall objective).
5. Horton dan Hunt (1984: 211), institutation is not a building, not a collection of a bunch of people, and not an organization. Institutations is a system of norms to achieve a goal or activity that is deemed important by the community or formally, a set of habits and behavior patterns which revolve around a basic human activity. In other words, the institution is structured (composed) to carry out certain activities.
6. Robert Mac Iver dan C.H. Page : social institution is a procedure or procedures which have been created to manage relationships between people who are members of a community group.
7. Leopold Von Weise dan Becker : Social institutions are networks of human relationships and processes between groups that serve to maintain the relationship with the patterns to suit individual interests and group interests.
8.  Soerjono Soekanto, Pranata social is the set of norms that range from all levels on a basic need in people's lives.
9. Maijor Polak JBAF. (1979), stating that the institute or social Intitution, is a complex or system of rules and customs that sustain the values ​​that are important.
10. W. Hamilton, that the agency is a group of life ordinances, which if violated will be subject to various degrees of sanctions.

Dalam literatur NewInstitutional Economics (North : 1990 :1), institutions are defined as rules (rules of the game) in the society, or more formally, is a tool used by humans as a limitation in the interaction between fellow human beings. This limitation can be either formal rules (system contract, statute, law, regulation) and informal rules (conventions, beliefs and social norms and culture) and rule enforcement (enforcement) which facilitate or shape the behavior (behavior) of individuals or organizations in the community (H. Melayu, 2005).

1.  Prof. Dr. Koentjaraningrat : Social institution is a set of norms that organize a series of special-purpose yangberpola action man in social life.
2. Bruce J. Cohen (1992) : Social institution is a system of social patterns are relatively compact and are permanent and contains certain behaviors robust and integrated by the satisfaction and fulfillment of human needs.
3. An institution is any structure or mechanism of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of a set of individuals within a given human community. Institutions are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending individual human lives and intentions, and with the making and enforcing of rules governing cooperative human behavior.  (http://id.shvoong.com/social-sciences/sociology/2200848-pengertian-nstitusi/#ixzz2UbEicrHx).
4. Ruttan dan Hayami, (1984), rules in a community group or organization that facilitates coordination among its members to help them with hope where everyone can work together or connected with each other to achieve common goals desired. 
5. Rules and guidelines used as a guide by the members of a community group to organize a mutually binding relationship or mutually dependent on each other. Structuring institutions (institutional arrangements) can be determined by several elements: operational rules for the regulation of resource utilization, collective rules to determine, enforce the law or the rules themselves and to change the rules of the operational and organizational authority to regulate relations (Ostrom, 1985; 1986). 
6. A set of constraints or controlling factor governing the behavioral relationships between members or between groups. By this definition most organizations because organizations generally are institutions generally have laws that regulate the relationship between members maupuna with others outside the organization (Nabli dan Nugent, 1989).
7. Includes structuring institutions (institutional arrangement) to integrate organizations and institutions. Institutional arrangement is an arrangement of the relationship between economic units that govern the way these units can work together and whether or compete. In this approach the organization is a question about the actor or actors in the economy where there is a contract or committed transactions, and contracts the main purpose is to reduce transaction costs (Williamson, 1985).
8.  Alvin L. Bertrand (1980) explains that social institutions are essentially a collection of norms (social structures) that was created to carry out a public function. Institutions related to human needs in the community setting is generally referred to by social institutions.
9. Institution is a subject of continuing debate among social scientist. The institution and organixation terms are commonly used interchangeably and this contributes to confusion ambiguityand” (Norman Uphoff, 1986: 8).

From the various definitions above my definition institution:

Institusion is a planned convention activities available in the community or group of people with a wide inter-relationships that can take the form of written rules (constitutions, laws applicable, sanctioned in accordance with the relevant laws), and is not written (customary law, the prevailing custom, the penalty is sanctioned social / moral, suppose ostracized or economic besifat eg fines) and shaped symbols that are binding people in it can be formal and informal. The Convention contains a sanction if violated, related to basic human needs in social life as well as having certain characteristics, namely values​​, rules, and goals in general are social, which is usually to improve welfare

REFERENCES :

Abdul Syani, Sosiologi Skematika, Teori, dan Terapan. (Jakarta: PT. Bumi Aksara, 2002), h. 77.

Bruce J. Cohen. 1983. Sosiologi Suatu Pengantar. Jakarta: Bina Aksara

H. Mekayu, 2005. Organisasi dan Mtivasi. Jakarta : PT. Bumi Aksara

Horton, Paul B. dan Chester L. Hunt, 1984. Sociology, edisi kelapan.Michigan McGraw-Hill. Terjemahannya dalam bahasa Indonesia, Paul B. Horton dan Chester L. Hunt, 1993. Sosiologi. Terjemahan Aminuddin Ram dan Tita Sobari. Jakarta: Penerbit Erlangga.

Koentjaraningrat, 2007. Manusia Dan Kebudayaan Indonesia. Jakarta : Djambatan

Maijor Polak, 1985. Sosiologi Suatu Buku Pengantar Ringkas. Jakarta: P.T. Ichtiar Baru Van Hoeve.

Nabli M, Nugent J. 1989. The New Institutional Economics and its applicability to Development. World Development. 17:1333-1347.

North DC. 1995. The new institutional economic and third world development. In: Harris J, Hunter J and Lewis C. (eds.) . 1995. The New Institutional Economic and Third Word Development. Pp 17-26, Routledge, London.

Ostronom E. 1985. Formulating the elements of institutional analysis. Paper presented Conference on Institutional Analisis and Development. Washington D.C. May 21-22 1985.

Ruttan VW, and Hayami Y. 1984. Toward a theory of induced institutional innovation. Journal of Development Studies. Vol 20: 22-203.

Soerjono Soekanto, 2001. Sosiologi Suatu Pengantar. PT Raja Grafindo Persada

Ahmad  Syani,  2002 Sosiologi Skematika, Teori, dan Terapan, Jakarta: PT. Bumi Aksara, 2002.

Uphoff, N.; Fernandes, E.C.; Yuan L.P.; Peng, J.; Rafaralahy, S. dan  Rabenandrasana, J. (Eds). Assessments of The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) :Proceeding of an International Conference held in Sanya, China, April 1-4 2002. Ithaca NY : Cornell International Institute for Food, Agriculture and Development.

Zucker, G. Lynne. 1987. Institutional Theories of Organization. California: Department of

Sociology, University of California at Los Angeles. Annual Review of Sociology, Vol.13.(1987),pp.443-464.

(http://id.shvoong.com/social-sciences/sociology/2200848-pengertian-nstitusi/#ixzz2UbEicrHx).

Possible Marine and Terrestrial Processes that Might Influence the Coastal Features

See aerial photo above. Write short comments (2-3 paragraphs) about any possible marine and terrestrial processes that might influence the coastal features as shown in that photo (coastal area in Yogyakarta)

Answer :

Based on the image of the picture above, is the estuary of the river Bogowonto in Kulon Progo which empties on the south coast of Kulon Progo Regency, Yogyakarta Special Region (DIY). This region is downstream of several major rivers flowing in the Kulon Progo it there is Progo river, Serang river, and the Bogowonto river. In the area along the coast in the form of plain iron sand deposits.

Bogowonto rivers including the River Regional Unit (RRU) Serayu Bogowonto. At the mouth of the region there are deposits of iron sand which is quite abundant existence. Materials sedimentation in the river estuary Bogowonto probably related to geological conditions Wawar upstream watershed and Bogowonto upstream watershed dominated by volcanic rock products. Old Andesite Formation and Merapi volcanic deposits known as a good carrier of iron sand around in Bantul and Kulon Progo.

Typology Coastal in Kulon Progo there is marine deposition coasts. Coast is formed by deposition of marine sediment material. Included in this category are not coastal barrier (barrier coasts), such as: barrier beaches, barrier islands, barrier spits and bays; cuspate forelands; beach plains, such as: coastal plains without a lagoon sand, and mud flats (mud flats) swamp or salt (salt marshes). This area is a landscape fluvial (river deposition process results) are dominated by alluvial plains, stretching across the southern part of the DIY that starts from Parangtritis beach to the west until the Cilacap area. The  process coastal area there are of forming terrestrial sedimentation in the form of material and coastal dynamic. such as tides, winds, waves and currents along the coast. The processes that control coastal can be clarified as follows :

River Discharge and Sedimentation

Typology on the coast Because there are two continuous processes, processes of terrestrial and marine processes of forming such a material sedimentsi lagoon and sea sand. Coast area that has a very high sedimentation rate. fraudulent rain and river discharge can affect erosion in upstream areas. This large river discharge brings large amounts of material from upstream. subsequent impact on the rate of sedimentation at the coast.

The process is influenced by the characteristics of inland coastal beaches are relatively flat and extends. The sedimentation rate is controlled by the amount of material that brought the river. Sedimentation process is rapid and continuous effect on the shape of the lagoon area. The energy of the waves of the sea were able to precipitate sedimentation of the river forming the spit.

Tidal  Wave

Ups and downs are the rise and fall of sea level (meansea level) on a regular basis, which is caused by the attractive force of the celestial bodies, especially the moon and sun on the water mass on earth. Waters south of Yogyakarta has a mixed type of tide ebb tide predominantly semidiurnal or mixed doubles leaning daily. This means that in a single day occurred 2 times and 2 times the receding tide.

Tidal power that occurred on this coast will greatly affect shoreline change, due to the influence of sea waves against sand sedimentation rate of material from the ground and there is no barrier beach on the activity of marine. The ups and downs so large would have the characteristics of a river which is perpendicular to the coast associated with the level of sedimentation and shoreline.

Sea Depth

The maximum depth of the sea on the south coast of DIY as far as 12 miles up to 500 m. The more to the south, the depth of the waters of the Indian Ocean increased gradually steeper until it reaches a depth of 4000 m (http://blh.jogjaprov.go.id/wp-content/uploads/LAPORAN-SLHD-DIY-2012.pdf).  This area is a marine trough that extends from west to east.

In this zone is a zone of tectonic plate collisions between tectonic plates of the ocean with the Asian continent. The depth of the sea in coastal areas can influence the big waves. Furthermore, on this beach include shallow coastal sea water so the waves are relatively large. so it is very fast in coastal morpho dynamics Samas beach. The example estuary and shoreline dynamics.

Wave

The large power wave will have an influence on the form of sediment at the mouth of the river parallel to the beach. The waves is big work on sedimentation from land and precipitate sedimentation on the beach. Butter a large labor force was also influenced by the waves of the sea breeze. In generally, the territorial waters of the South Sea of Java and particularly in the South Coast DIY, waves generated quite large and are often to be said a hightly malignant regions by causing abrasion throughout the year and any time at casualties.

The Sea South DIY wave magnitude is directly influenced by oceanographic conditions of the waters of the Indian Ocean is very broad, with the condition of strong winds blowing throughout the year. Waves or wave conditions along the southern coast of Yogyakarta relatively equally large, but tends to be higher in Gunung Kidul beach. Height and size of ocean waves, in addition influenced by oceanographic conditions of the Indian Ocean, also influenced the local coastline topography.

Wind

Large wind energy from the ocean can be a major trigger for the big wave, wave direction and the direction of the flow of sea water. Coastal sea breeze coming from the the northeast blowing from the Australian continent. The number of wind energy in the coastal region is also affected by the absence of barriers such as hills. if there is a hill as the wind energy barrier of the sea at least energy will be reduced. for example differences in Gunung Kidul area with coast coastal Kulon Progo precisely on the coast and estuaries in that region.

Wind energy can be capable of diverting the direction of ocean waves. Other influences on the beach openness violent crushing waves. This effect on the deposited sediment and influence on shoreline change and river estuaries on the move. It is possible that the energy of the ocean is greater than the energy of the land.

Current

At this beach has a high current energy, because it is directly opposite the beach at Ocean Hinda. Currents that occur in the waters of the South Seas DIY caused by the waves come, with 2 (two) current patterns formed by currents along the coast (longshore current) and current beach (rip currents). Waves coming towards the coast can cause coastal currents (nearshore current) that affect the process of sedimentation and coastal erosion. The pattern of coastal currents is determined by the magnitude of the angle formed by the wave or waves coming towards the shore line.

Angle of the wave in the waters of the South Coast DIY approximately 110º, so the more dominant form currents along the coast. Flow patterns along the coast have a major impact on the transport of sand material, sediment, and litter beaches. This condition is clearly visible along the South Beach district of Bantul and Kulon Progo. In some coastal areas such as bays and estuaries occur piling sand material, where as in other places such as the upstream river erosion and coastal erosion as rugged East Parangtritis. Sand material by future water caused by the incoming wave can be deposited on the beach.

Coastal System Analysis (Coastal erosion)

Coastal erosion is a natural phenomenon, which has always existed and has contributed throughout history to shape coastal landscapes. Coastal erosion, as well as soil erosion in water catchments, is the main processes which provides terrestrial sediment to the coastal systems including beaches, dunes, reefs, mud flats, and marshes. In turn, coastal systems provide a wide range of functions including absorption of wave energies, nesting and hatching of fauna, protection of fresh water, or siting for recreational activities. However, migration of human population towards the coast, together with its ever growing interference in the coastal zone has also turned coastal erosion into a problem of growing intensity.

Understanding the key processes of coastal dynamics and how coasts developed in the past and present, as well as over the short and long term, is very important for managing coastal erosion problems because coastal erosion may occur without cause for concern. This can be very complex and possibly controversial where many conflicts of interests exist within the coastal environment. The main underlying principles for coastal erosion management are as follows (NRC, 1990; ARC, 2000):

a.       Identify and confirm coastal erosion as a problem.

b.      Identify, confirm and quantify the cause of the problem and ensure that any

c.       Management option is well thought out before implementing coastal erosion measures.

d.      Understand the key processes and characteristics of coastal dynamics and

e.       System boundaries that reflect the natural processes of the erosion problem.

f.       Determine the coastal erosion measure options and implement them using proper design, construction and maintenance with careful evaluation of the effects on adjacent shores.

From sea erosion problems that occur, there are several options that can be done to prevent or resolve these problems by doing the following three things:

1.      Coastal Stabilization With Breakwater

Stabilizethe beach can with breakwaters constructed,. Breakwater for energy reduction wave that hit the shore can be done by making the building a breakwater parallel to the beach (Offshore Breakwater). with the breakwater wave coming to hit the beach was broken at a place some distance from the shore, so the wave energy up the beach is quite small.

Revetment is one bnetuk breakwater. Revetment is made coastal protection structures parallel to the beach and usually has a sloping surface. Regular structure consisting of concrete, stone heaps, sandbags. Because the surface is made up of heap/concrete block with voids in between, it is more effective revetment to reduce wave energy. Construction strengthening coastal cliffs serves to protect land or buildings behind the wall/revetmen from the onslaught of the waves, so that the soil is not eroded. Revetmen used for protection against the relatively small waves. The downside of this is the possibility of building a fairly deep scouring at the foot of the building. Therefore, at the foot of this building should be created as a protection against scour/erosion (toe protection) is quite good.

In addition there is a form breakwater seawall. Seawall almost similar with less revetment, which is parallel to the beach but the seawall has relatively straight or curved walls. Seawall is generally made of solid construction such as concrete, steel plaster/wood, masonry or concrete pipes so seawall did not dampen wave energy, but the waves were hitting the surface of the seawall will be reflected back and cause scouring at the heel.

Breakwater may also Useful to hold back the sea sediment caused by ocean currents (onshore-offshore transport). Eventually the suspended sediment to accumulate and form Tombolo, Tombolo it will serve as a sediment barrier parallel to the beach, but the establishment of this Tombolo take a long time.

In the area that represents the flow of the river and the surrounding settlements, on the banks of river rock walls can be made of iron frames. By making a stone wall with iron wire frame in a river can reduce the erosion of river water. This can be seen in the figure below.

Figure 1. wire mounting stone

In the picture above can be seen, its function is to reduce the erosion that occurs in the watershed. By using this iron wire to reinforce the stone structure. So that last a long time and to prevent flooding when the river water carried.

2.      Can planting mangrove forests (mangrove forest) in areas of sea erosion. Mangrove forests are tropical coastal vegetation communities, which are the characteristic littoral plant formations there did the tropics. Mangrove vegetation is dominated by a few species of trees that can grow and thrive in muddy tidal areas in Indonesia.

Physically mangrove plants can keep the shoreline in order to remain stable, preventing or protecting the beaches and river banks from erosion and to trap marine pollutant and waste, accelerate the expansion of the land, protecting the areas behind the mangroves of the blows and the waves and the wind from the sea, prevent the intrusion of salt (salt intrution) towards the ground, it can reduce the risk of tsunami, and assist in the deposition of silt so the quality of sea water is more awake than silt erosion and so on.

Lack way of resolving the problem of erosion associated with the crop planting mangrove vegetation can’t be done in all kinds of beach as mangrove only grows in muddy areas. While in Indonesia is that the coastal erosion is not only a muddy area only.

3.      Filling Sand is one of the sea erosion problem solving occurs. Charging sand aims to replace sand lost to erosion and provide coastal protection against erosion in the form of sand levee system. Things to consider is the location of the sand must have sufficient depth so that the increase due to the depth of excavation of sand does not affect the pattern of waves and currents, which in turn will lead to the erosion of the surrounding beaches.

Security system with the addition of coastal sediment supply to do with the "beach nourishment" that adds sediment supply (move sediment) from the ground or from elsewhere in the space will potentially eroded, or restore the eroded beach. The benefits of coastal protection system is that the implementation is simple, it requires material cost very much.

selection of underwater structures or filling sand as coastal protection, water structure has smaller dimensions than a continuous structure to the surface so it is more economical. Besides this, the structure of water is also not interfere with views of the beach area or travel to the ocean so it is suitable for a tourist area. In an alternative method of solving problems with filling sand sea erosion, the magnitude of the overall wave is not damped so that water behind the structure can still be used for swimming and other activities.

Bibliography :

Dahuri, H.R., Rais, J., Ginting, S.P., dan Sitepu, M.J., 1996.  Pengelolaan Sumber Daya Wilayah Pesisir dan Lautan Secara Terpadu, PT Pradnya Paramita, Jakarta.

Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan RI. ,2004 , Pedoman Penyusunan Rencana Pengelolaan Garis Pantai.

Dharmawan, A.S., 1999. Tinjauan Geomorfologi Pesisir Teluk Balikpapan dan Dampak Penggunaan Tanah di Daerah-daerah Aliran Sungainya sebagai Salah Satu Pertimbangan Bagi pengelolaan. Bahan Lokakarya Partisipatif Proses Perencanaan Pengelolaan Teluk Balikpapan Bersama Pihak-pihak Terkaitnya, Balikpapan. 

Yuwono, N., 2004, Pedoman Teknis Perencanaan Pantai Buatan (Artificial Beach Nourishment), Pusat Antar Universitas, Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta.

Remote Sensing and Geography Information System for Watershed and Coastal Management

1.      Electromagnetic energy is a major component of most remote sensing systems for environmental, namely as a medium for the transmission of information from the target to the sensor. Electromagnetic energy travels in waves with some characters that can be measured, namely: wavelength / wavelength, frequency, amplitude / amplitude, speed. Wave amplitude is high, while the wavelength is the distance between the two peaks.

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the continuous range of electromagnetic radiation, extending from gamma rays (highest frequency & shortest wavelength) to radio waves (lowest frequency & longest wavelength) and including visible light. The EM spectrum can be divided into seven different regions - gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves and radio waves (Robert Sanderson)

Figure 1. electromagnetic (EM) energy

Frequency is the number of waves that pass a point in one unit of time. The frequency depends on the speed of the wave climbed. Because of the speed of electromagnetic energy is constant (speed of light), wavelength and frequency is inversely proportional. The longer a wave, the lower the frequency, the shorter the wave and the higher the frequency. Wavelength of electromagnetic energy figure 2:

Figure 2 : Elektromagnetic energy

Electromagnetic energy radiates in accordance with the basic wave theory. This theory describes the EM energy as travelling in a harmonic sinusoidal fashion at the velocity of light. Although many characteristics of EM energy are easily described by wave theory, another theory known as particle theory offers insight into how electromagnetic energy interacts with matter. It suggests that EMR is composed of many discrete units called photons/quanta (Shefali Aggarwal).

Electromagnetic energy emitted, or released, by all the time in the universe in which different levels. Higher levels of energy in an energy source, the lower the wavelength of the energy produced, and the higher the frequency. Differences in the characteristics of the wave energy is used to classify electromagnetic energy.

a.       Temperature : the origin of all energy (electromagnetic energy or radiant energy) begins with the vibration of subatomic particles called photos (figure 3). All objects at a temperature above absolute zero vibrate and therefore emit some form of electromagnetic energy. Temperature is a measurement of this vibrational energy emmited from an object. Humans are sensitive to sensation of heat. A “hot” object emits relatively large amounts of energy. Conversely: “cold” object emits relatively little energy.

Figure 3. As an electron jumps from a higher to lower energy level, shown in top figure, a photon of energy is released. The absoption of photon energy by an atom allows electrons to jump from a lower to a higher energy state (Departement of the Army).

b.      Scattering :

Scattering is the redirection of EMR by particles suspended in the atmosphere or by large molecules of atmospheric gases. Scattering not only reduces the image contrast but also changes the spectral signature of ground objects as seen by the sensor. The amount of scattering depends upon the size of the particles, their abundance, the wavelength of radiation, depth of the atmosphere through which the energy is traveling and the concentration of the particles. The concentration of particulate matter varies both in time and over season. Thus the effects of scattering will be uneven spatially and will vary from time to time or Particles or gas molecules in the atmosphere that interact with light large size and cause changes in the direction of the light.

Theoretically scattering can be divided into three categories depending upon the wavelength of radiation being scattered and the size of the particles causing the scattering. The three different types of scattering from particles of different sizes are summarized below:

      Tabel 1. Type scattering (Shefali Aggarwal)

c.       Atmospheric Windows :

Atmospheric Windows  an areas that are not affected by the absorption of atmosphere is up, so it's handy for Remote Sensing. The general atmospheric transmittance across the whole spectrum  of  wavelengths is shown in Figure 6. The atmosphere electively transmits energy of certain wavelengths. The spectral bands for which the atmosphere is relatively transparent are known as atmospheric windows. Atmospheric windows are present in the visible part (.4 μm - .76 μm) and the infrared regions of the EM  spectrum. In the visible part transmission is mainly effected by ozone absorption and by molecular scattering. The atmosphere is transparent again beyond about λ= 1mm, the region used for microwave remote sensing.

  

2.      Characteristics Visible, Infrared, Microwave against The Earth Objects in the Wavelength :

a.       Visible

The position of the electromagnetic spectrum visible light is in the middle. This type of energy can be detected by the human eye, film and electronic detectors. Wavelengths ranging from 0.4 to 0.7 lm. Different wavelengths in the range detected by the human eye and brain translate into color. Below is an example of a composite of Landsat 7. Examples can be seen in figure 4:

                              Figure 4. Citra landsat komposit

Landsat provides a relatively economical way of obtaining sequential data at a scale and in a format that is appropriate for monitoring global vegetation, using computer-aided analysis (R. M. Hoffer). However, scanner systems operating in the optical wavelengths cannot obtain data in areaswhere there is persistent heavy cloud cover, whereas radar can. The capability of radar to provide data related to plant physiognomy otTers a potential for differentiating among vegetative cover types and sizesthat cannotbe distinguished through the use of spectral data alone. The advantages of photographic data are that they provide a degree of detail that cannot be obtained by the other types of sensors. Thus, each type of sensor provides the capability of obtaining data that cannot be obtained in any other way.

The type and degree of detail of the information needed must be carefully defined, after which the various sensor systems can be matched to the information required. Different analysis techniques must be utilized, depending on the sensor system involved, the scale of imagery obtained, and the degree of detail required. Both manual and computer-aided analysis techniques have distinct advantages and limitations that must be recognized in order to achieve

maximum efficiency.

When one considers the various types of sensor systems and analysis techniques available, it is apparent that remote sensing technology offers a powerful and relatively economical tool for assessing the extent, characteristics and condition of the vegetation resources of the world.

b.      Infrared

Infrared is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength longer than visible light, but shorter than microwave radiation. Infrared radiation (IR) can be emitted from an object or reflected from a surface. Infrared emission detected as heat energy and is called thermal infrared. The reflected energy is almost the same as the beam energy is called the reflected visible and near IR or IR because of its position on the electromagnetic spectrum near visible light.

Which covers the wavelength range from approximately 0.7 µm to 100 µm - more than 100 times as wide as the visible portion. The infrared region can be divided into two categories based on their radiation properties - the reflected IR, and the emitted or thermal IR. Radiation in the reflected IR region is used for remote sensing purposes in ways very similar to radiation in the visible portion. The reflected IR covers wavelengths from approximately 0.7 µm to 3.0 µm. The thermal IR region is quite different than the visible and reflected IR portions, as this energy is essentially the radiation that is emitted from the Earth's surface in the form of heat. The thermal IR covers wavelengths from approximately 3.0 µm to 100 µm.

figure 5. infrared radiation

        For remote sensing applications for environmental use Landsat imagery, IR Reflected in band 4 (near IR), band 5.7 (Mid IR) and thermal IR band 6, a key characteristic for image interpretation. For example, the following figure shows the global sea surface temperature (with thermal IR) and the distribution of vegetation (with near IR). Infrared figure 6:

Figure 6. Infrared (IR)

c.       Microwave

Microwave  remote sensing, using microwave radiation using wavelengths from about one centimeter to a few tens on centimeters enables observation in all weather conditions without any restriction by cloud or rain. This is an advantage that is not possible with the visible and/or infrares remote sensing. In adition, microwave remote sensing provides uniqe information on for example, sea wind and wave direction, which are derived from frequency characteristics, Dopler effect, polarization, back scattering etc. that cannot be observed by visible and infrared sensors. Howeve, the need for sophisticated data analysis in the disadvantage in using microwave remote sensing.

Wavelength of microwave radiation ranges from 0.3-300 cm. Its use is mainly in the field of communication and information delivery through open spaces, cooking, and remote sensing systems active. In the remote sensing system is active, the microwave pulse is fired through a targeted and measured to study the reflection characteristics of the target. As an application example is the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission's (TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI), which measures the microwave radiation emitted from the Earth's atmosphere to measure evaporation, water content in the cloud and rain intensity.

 References :

Departement of the Army. 2003. US Army Corps of Enginers Washington, DC 20314-1000. EM 1110-2907

Journal Fundamentals of Remote Sensing. A Canada Centre for Remote Sensing Remote sensing Tutorial. Natural Resources Canada

Robert Sanderson. Introduction to Remote Sensing. New Mexico State University

R. M. Hoffer. 1984. Chapter 5Remote Sensing to Measure the Distribution and Structure of vegetation.  Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA

Shefali Aggarwal. Principles of Remote Sensing. Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Division Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehra Dun. Journal.